Barriers and enablers for practicing kangaroo mother care (KMC) in rural Sindh, Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: More than 2.5 million newborns die each year, accounting for 47% of children dying worldwide before their age of five years. Complications of preterm birth are the leading cause of death among newborns. Pakistan is amongst the top ten countries with highest preterm birth rate per 1000 live births. Globally, Every Newborn Action Plan (ENAP) has emphasized on Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) as an essential component of neonatal health initiatives. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted this qualitative study with 12 in-depth interviews (IDIs) and 14 focus group discussion (FGD) sessions, in two health facilities of Sindh, Pakistan during October-December 2016, to understand the key barriers and enablers to a mother's ability to practice KMC and the feasibility of implementing and improving these practices. RESULTS: The findings revealed that community stakeholders were generally aware of health issues especially related to maternal and neonatal health. Both the health care providers and managers were supportive of implementing KMC in their respective health facilities as well as for continuous use of KMC at household level. In order to initiate KMC at facility level, study respondents emphasized on ensuring availability of equipment, supplies, water-sanitation facility, modified patient ward (e.g., curtain, separate room) and quality of services as well as training of health providers as critical prerequisites. Also in order to continue practicing KMC at household level, engaging the community and establishing functional referral linkage between community and facilities were focused issues in facility and community level FGDs and IDIs. CONCLUSION: The study participants considered it feasible to initiate KMC practice at health facility and to continue practicing at home after returning from facility. Ensuring facility readiness to initiate KMC, improving capacity of health providers both at facility and community levels, coupled with focusing on community mobilization strategy, targeting specific audiences, may help policy makers and program planners to initiate KMC at health facility and keep KMC practice continued at household level.

Development and Initial Validation of a Frontline Health Worker mHealth Assessment Platform (MEDSINC®) for Children 2-60 Months of Age.

Approximately 3 million children younger than 5 years living in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) die each year from treatable clinical conditions such as pneumonia, dehydration secondary to diarrhea, and malaria. A majority of these deaths could be prevented with early clinical assessments and appropriate therapeutic intervention. In this study, we describe the development and initial validation testing of a mobile health (mHealth) platform, MEDSINC®, designed for frontline health workers (FLWs) to perform clinical risk assessments of children aged 2-60 months. MEDSINC is a web browser-based clinical severity assessment, triage, treatment, and follow-up recommendation platform developed with physician-based Bayesian pattern recognition logic. Initial validation, usability, and acceptability testing were performed on 861 children aged between 2 and 60 months by 49 FLWs in Burkina Faso, Ecuador, and Bangladesh. MEDSINC-based clinical assessments by FLWs were independently and blindly correlated with clinical assessments by 22 local health-care professionals (LHPs). Results demonstrate that clinical assessments by FLWs using MEDSINC had a specificity correlation between 84% and 99% to LHPs, except for two outlier assessments (63% and 75%) at one study site, in which local survey prevalence data indicated that MEDSINC outperformed LHPs. In addition, MEDSINC triage recommendation distributions were highly correlated with those of LHPs, whereas usability and feasibility responses from LHP/FLW were collectively positive for ease of use, learning, and job performance. These results indicate that the MEDSINC platform could significantly increase pediatric health-care capacity in LMICs by improving FLWs' ability to accurately assess health status and triage of children, facilitating early life-saving therapeutic interventions.

Approaches to support continued iCCM implementation during a flooding emergency in rural Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: More evidence is needed on how integrated community case management (iCCM) service delivery is affected and on how to maintain service availability during crises. This study documented the implementation of iCCM through two cadres of community health workers (community health care providers [CHCPs] and village doctors [VDs]) in communities that were affected by a 2015 flooding emergency in Bangladesh. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective case study to assess iCCM services provided by CHCPs and VDs during a flooding emergency that occurred from June to August 2015. We purposively selected nine unions within four sub-districts in Bhola District. In this mixed methods study, we analyzed trends in quantitative service delivery indicators over the time period from January 2015 to February 2016. Qualitative data were obtained through 28 in-depth interviews and 13 focus group discussions with policy makers, implementers, supervisors, CHCPs, VDs, community leaders, and caregivers of under-five children. RESULTS: All stakeholders reported disruptions in iCCM service delivery and in access to CHCPs and VDs for community members. The quantitative data showed a 30% reduction in average number of children who received treatment from both CHCPs and VDs during flooding months compared to pre-flood months (from 2273/month to 1593/month). There was also an increase in the number of children referred by CHCPs and VDs, reduced supervision, and increased stock-outs of commodities during the flooding months. CHCPs and VDs, in collaboration with community members, came up with several locally adapted initiatives to maintain iCCM services, including changing clinic hours according to the tide, organizing temporary clinics at alternative sites that were located on higher ground, use of community boats to visit clients in their homes, and use of mobile phones for communication with supervisors and community members. CONCLUSION: Our study results demonstrate that iCCM services can continue during a natural disaster, albeit with significant disruptions. Ad hoc adaptations to services by local implementers and community members were key in maintaining availability of services during the emergency. In future emergencies, service delivery could be significantly strengthened by enacting key preparedness activities prior to a natural disaster such as severe flooding.

Incidence and risk factors of neonatal infections in a rural Bangladeshi population: a community-based prospective study.

BACKGROUND: Infections cause about one fifth of the estimated 2.7 million annual neonatal deaths worldwide. Population-based data on burden and risk factors of neonatal infections are lacking in developing countries, which are required for the appropriate design of effective preventive and therapeutic interventions in resource-poor settings. METHODS: We used data from a community-based cluster-randomized trial conducted to evaluate the impact of two umbilical cord cleansing regimens with chlorhexidine solution on neonatal mortality and morbidity in a rural area of Sylhet District in Bangladesh. Newborns were assessed four times in the first 9 days of life by trained community health workers (CHWs) using a WHO IMCI-like clinical algorithm. Cumulative incidence of the first episode of infections in the first 9 days of life was estimated using survival analysis technique accounting for survival bias and competing risk of death before the occurrence of infection. A multivariable generalized estimating equation log-binomial regression model was used to identify factors independently associated with infections. RESULTS: Between 2007 and 2009, 30,267 newborns who received at least one postnatal assessment visit by a CHW within the first 9 days of life were included in this study. Cumulative incidence of infections in the first 9 days of life was 14.5% (95% CI 14.1-14.9%). Significant risk factors included previous child death in the family [RR 1.10 (95% CI 1.02-1.19)]; overcrowding [RR 1.14 (95% CI 1.04-1.25)]; home delivery [RR 1.86 (95% CI 1.58-2.19)]; unclean cord care [RR 1.15 (95% CI 1.03-1.28)]; multiple births [RR 1.34 (95% CI 1.15-1.56)]; low birth weight [reference: ≥ 2500 g, RR (95% CI) for < 1500, 1500-1999, and 2000-2499 g were 4.69 (4.01-5.48), 2.15 (1.92-2.42), and 1.15 (1.07-1.25) respectively]; and birth asphyxia [RR 1.65 (1.51-1.81)]. Higher pregnancy order lowered the risk of infections in the study population [compared to first pregnancy, RR (95% CI) for second, third, and ≥ fourth pregnancy babies were 0.93 (0.85-1.02), 0.88 (0.79-0.97), and 0.79 (0.71-0.87), respectively]. CONCLUSION: Neonatal infections and associated deaths can be reduced by identifying and following up high-risk mothers and newborns and promoting facility delivery and clean cord care in resource-poor countries like Bangladesh where the burden of clinically ascertained neonatal infections is high. Further research is needed to measure the burden of infections in the entire neonatal period, particularly in the second fortnight and its association with essential newborn care. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT00434408 . Registered February 9, 2007.

Integrated community case management (iCCM) of childhood infection saves lives in hard-to-reach communities in Nicaragua.

OBJECTIVE: To describe Nicaragua's integrated community case management (iCCM) program for hard-to-reach, rural communities and to evaluate its impact using monitoring data, including annual, census-based infant mortality data. METHOD: This observational study measured the strength of iCCM implementation and estimated trends in infant mortality during 2007-2013 in 120 remote Nicaraguan communities where brigadistas ("health brigadiers") offered iCCM services to children 2-59 months old. The study used program monitoring data from brigadistas' registers and supervision checklists, and derived mortality data from annual censuses conducted by the Ministry of Health. The mortality ratio (infant deaths over number of children alive in the under-1-year age group) was calculated and point estimates and exact binomial confidence intervals (CIs) were reported. RESULTS: Monitoring data revealed strong implementation of iCCM over the study period, with medicine availability, completeness of recording, and correct classification always exceeding 80%. Treatments provided by brigadistas for pneumonia and diarrhea closely tracked expected cases and caregivers consistently sought treatment more frequently from brigadistas than from health facilities. The infant mortality ratio decreased more in iCCM areas compared to the non-iCCM areas. Statistically significant reduction ranged from 52% in 2010 (mortality rate ratio 0.48; 95% CI: 0.25-0.92) to 59% in 2013 (mortality rate ratio 0.41; 95% CI: 0.21-0.81). CONCLUSIONS: The iCCM has been found to be an effective and feasible strategy to save infant lives in hard-to-reach communities in Nicaragua. The impact was likely mediated by increased use of curative interventions, made accessible and available at the community level, and delivered through high-quality services, by brigadistas.

Impact of Chlorhexidine Cord Cleansing on Mortality, Omphalitis and Cord Separation Time Among Facility-Born Babies in Nepal and Bangladesh.

Guidance is needed regarding potential extension of the World Health Organization recommendation for cord cleansing with chlorhexidine to babies born in facilities. Among 3223 facility-born babies from Nepal and Bangladesh, mortality was approximately halved among those allocated to the intervention clusters [10.5/1000 vs. 19.4/1000; relative risk (RR): 0.54; 95% confidence interval: 0.30-0.97]. In high-mortality settings, a single policy for home and facility births is warranted.

Integrated community case management (iCCM) of childhood infection saves lives in hard-to-reach communities in Nicaragua / La atención integrada de las infecciones infantiles en la comunidad salva vidas en las comunidades de difícil acceso de Nicaragua / O manejo integrado de casos na comunidade (iCCM) aplicado às infecções infantis salva vidas em comunidades de difícil acesso na Nicarágua

Objective. To describe Nicaragua’s integrated community case management (iCCM) program for hard-to-reach, rural communities and to evaluate its impact using monitoring data, including annual, census-based infant mortality data. Method. This observational study measured the strength of iCCM implementation and estimated trends in infant mortality during 2007–2013 in 120 remote Nicaraguan communities where brigadistas (“health brigadiers”) offered iCCM services to children 2–59 months old. The study used program monitoring data from brigadistas’ registers and supervision checklists, and derived mortality data from annual censuses conducted by the Ministry of Health. The mortality ratio (infant deaths over number of children alive in the under-1-year age group) was calculated and point estimates and exact binomial confidence intervals (CIs) were reported. Results. Monitoring data revealed strong implementation of iCCM over the study period, with medicine availability, completeness of recording, and correct classification always exceeding 80%. Treatments provided by brigadistas for pneumonia and diarrhea closely tracked expected cases and caregivers consistently sought treatment more frequently from brigadistas than from health facilities. The infant mortality ratio decreased more in iCCM areas compared to the non-iCCM areas. Statistically significant reduction ranged from 52% in 2010 (mortality rate ratio 0.48; 95% CI: 0.25–0.92) to 59% in 2013 (mortality rate ratio 0.41; 95% CI: 0.21–0.81). Conclusions. The iCCM has been found to be an effective and feasible strategy to save infant lives in hard-to-reach communities in Nicaragua. The impact was likely mediated by increased use of curative interventions, made accessible and available at the community level, and delivered through high-quality services, by brigadistas.

Objetivo. Describir el programa nicaragüense de atención integrada en la comunidad destinado a las comunidades rurales de difícil acceso y evaluar sus efectos a partir de los datos de seguimiento, como los datos censales anuales sobre la mortalidad infantil (menores de 1 año). Método. Este estudio de observación tuvo como objetivo valorar la ejecución de la atención integrada en la comunidad y medir las tendencias de la mortalidad infantil (menores de 1 año) entre el 2007 y el 2013 en 120 comunidades nicaragüenses remotas donde los brigadistas brindan servicios de atención integrada en la comunidad a niños de 2 a 59 meses. El estudio se valió de datos programáticos de seguimiento obtenidos de los registros y las listas de verificación utilizadas para la supervisión de los brigadistas, así como datos de mortalidad derivados de los censos anuales realizados por el Ministerio de Salud. Se calculó la razón de mortalidad (defunciones de lactantes por cantidad de menores de un año vivos) y se informaron estimaciones puntuales e intervalos de confianza binomiales exactos. Resultados. Los datos de seguimiento mostraron una ejecución sólida del programa de atención integrada en la comunidad en el período del estudio, dado que la disponibilidad de medicamentos, los registros completos y la clasificación correcta siempre superaron el 80%. Como parte del tratamiento proporcionado contra la neumonía y la diarrea, los brigadistas llevaron a cabo un seguimiento minucioso de los casos previstos y los cuidadores solicitaron tratamiento de los brigadistas con más frecuencia que de los establecimientos de salud. La razón de mortalidad infantil (menores de 1 año) disminuyó más en las zonas atendidas por el programa que en aquellas no atendidas. Se observó una disminución estadísticamente significativa del 52% en el 2010 (razón de la tasa de mortalidad 0,48; IC del 95%: 8%-75%) al 59% en el 2013 (razón de la tasa de mortalidad 0,41; IC del 95%: 19%-79%). Conclusiones. El programa de atención integrada en la comunidad es una estrategia eficaz y factible para salvar la vida de los lactantes en las comunidades de difícil acceso de Nicaragua. Estos efectos probablemente estuvieron mediados por la mayor prestación de intervenciones curativas, que estuvieron accesibles y disponibles en el ámbito de la comunidad, y fueron brindadas por los brigadistas por medio de servicios de buena calidad.

Objetivo. Descrever o programa de manejo integrado de casos na comunidade (iCCM) para comunidades rurais e de difícil acesso na Nicarágua e avaliar seu impacto usando dados de monitoramento, inclusive dados censitários anuais de mortalidade infantil. Método. Este estudo observacional avaliou o nível de implementação da estratégia iCCM e calculou tendências de mortalidade infantil nos anos 2007-2013 em 120 comunidades remotas da Nicarágua onde “brigadistas de saúde” prestam serviços de iCCM para crianças de 2 a 59 meses de idade. Foram utilizados dados de monitoramento obtidos dos cadastros e checklists de supervisão de brigadistas e dados de mortalidade obtidos dos censos anuais realizados pelo Ministério da Saúde. Foi calculado o coeficiente de mortalidade infantil (número de óbitos infantis dividido pelo número de crianças menores de 1 ano vivas), além de estimativas pontuais e intervalos de confiança (IC) binomiais exatos. Resultados. Os dados de monitoramento evidenciaram forte implementação da estratégia iCCM durante o período de estudo; a disponibilidade de medicamentos, a integralidade dos registros e a classificação correta sempre excederam 80%. O tratamento da pneumonia e da diarreia por brigadistas acompanhou de perto o número de casos esperado, e os responsáveis pelas crianças sistematicamente buscaram tratamento com maior frequência junto aos brigadistas do que nos serviços de saúde. O coeficiente de mortalidade infantil diminuiu mais nas áreas com iCCM do que nas áreas sem iCCM. A redução foi estatisticamente significante, variando de 52% em 2010 (razão de taxa de mortalidade: 0,48; IC95%: 8%–75%) a 59% em 2013 (razão de taxa de mortalidade: 0,41; IC95%: 19%–79%). Conclusões. Constatou-se que a iCCM é uma estratégia eficaz e viável para salvar vidas de crianças em comunidades de difícil acesso na Nicarágua. O impacto provavelmente foi mediado pelo aumento do uso de intervenções resolutivas, disponibilizadas de maneira acessível no âmbito da comunidade, através do serviço qualificado prestado pelos brigadistas.

Integrated community case management (iCCM) of childhood infection saves lives in hard-to-reach communities in Nicaragua / La atención integrada de las infecciones infantiles en la comunidad salva vidas en las comunidades de difícil acceso de Nicaragua / O manejo integrado de casos na comunidade (iCCM) aplicado às infecções infantis salva vidas em comunidades de difícil acesso na Nicarágua

ABSTRACT Objective To describe Nicaragua’s integrated community case management (iCCM) program for hard-to-reach, rural communities and to evaluate its impact using monitoring data, including annual, census-based infant mortality data. Method This observational study measured the strength of iCCM implementation and estimated trends in infant mortality during 2007–2013 in 120 remote Nicaraguan communities where brigadistas (“health brigadiers”) offered iCCM services to children 2–59 months old. The study used program monitoring data from brigadistas’ registers and supervision checklists, and derived mortality data from annual censuses conducted by the Ministry of Health. The mortality ratio (infant deaths over number of children alive in the under-1-year age group) was calculated and point estimates and exact binomial confidence intervals (CIs) were reported. Results Monitoring data revealed strong implementation of iCCM over the study period, with medicine availability, completeness of recording, and correct classification always exceeding 80%. Treatments provided by brigadistas for pneumonia and diarrhea closely tracked expected cases and caregivers consistently sought treatment more frequently from brigadistas than from health facilities. The infant mortality ratio decreased more in iCCM areas compared to the non-iCCM areas. Statistically significant reduction ranged from 52% in 2010 (mortality rate ratio 0.48; 95% CI: 0.25–0.92) to 59% in 2013 (mortality rate ratio 0.41; 95% CI: 0.21–0.81). Conclusions The iCCM has been found to be an effective and feasible strategy to save infant lives in hard-to-reach communities in Nicaragua. The impact was likely mediated by increased use of curative interventions, made accessible and available at the community level, and delivered through high-quality services, by brigadistas.

RESUMEN Objetivo Describir el programa nicaragüense de atención integrada en la comunidad destinado a las comunidades rurales de difícil acceso y evaluar sus efectos a partir de los datos de seguimiento, como los datos censales anuales sobre la mortalidad infantil (menores de 1 año). Método Este estudio de observación tuvo como objetivo valorar la ejecución de la atención integrada en la comunidad y medir las tendencias de la mortalidad infantil (menores de 1 año) entre el 2007 y el 2013 en 120 comunidades nicaragüenses remotas donde los brigadistas brindan servicios de atención integrada en la comunidad a niños de 2 a 59 meses. El estudio se valió de datos programáticos de seguimiento obtenidos de los registros y las listas de verificación utilizadas para la supervisión de los brigadistas, así como datos de mortalidad derivados de los censos anuales realizados por el Ministerio de Salud. Se calculó la razón de mortalidad (defunciones de lactantes por cantidad de menores de un año vivos) y se informaron estimaciones puntuales e intervalos de confianza binomiales exactos. Resultados Los datos de seguimiento mostraron una ejecución sólida del programa de atención integrada en la comunidad en el período del estudio, dado que la disponibilidad de medicamentos, los registros completos y la clasificación correcta siempre superaron el 80%. Como parte del tratamiento proporcionado contra la neumonía y la diarrea, los brigadistas llevaron a cabo un seguimiento minucioso de los casos previstos y los cuidadores solicitaron tratamiento de los brigadistas con más frecuencia que de los establecimientos de salud. La razón de mortalidad infantil (menores de 1 año) disminuyó más en las zonas atendidas por el programa que en aquellas no atendidas. Se observó una disminución estadísticamente significativa del 52% en el 2010 (razón de la tasa de mortalidad 0,48; IC del 95%: 8%-75%) al 59% en el 2013 (razón de la tasa de mortalidad 0,41; IC del 95%: 19%-79%). Conclusiones El programa de atención integrada en la comunidad es una estrategia eficaz y factible para salvar la vida de los lactantes en las comunidades de difícil acceso de Nicaragua. Estos efectos probablemente estuvieron mediados por la mayor prestación de intervenciones curativas, que estuvieron accesibles y disponibles en el ámbito de la comunidad, y fueron brindadas por los brigadistas por medio de servicios de buena calidad.

RESUMO Objetivo Descrever o programa de manejo integrado de casos na comunidade (iCCM) para comunidades rurais e de difícil acesso na Nicarágua e avaliar seu impacto usando dados de monitoramento, inclusive dados censitários anuais de mortalidade infantil. Método Este estudo observacional avaliou o nível de implementação da estratégia iCCM e calculou tendências de mortalidade infantil nos anos 2007-2013 em 120 comunidades remotas da Nicarágua onde “brigadistas de saúde” prestam serviços de iCCM para crianças de 2 a 59 meses de idade. Foram utilizados dados de monitoramento obtidos dos cadastros e checklists de supervisão de brigadistas e dados de mortalidade obtidos dos censos anuais realizados pelo Ministério da Saúde. Foi calculado o coeficiente de mortalidade infantil (número de óbitos infantis dividido pelo número de crianças menores de 1 ano vivas), além de estimativas pontuais e intervalos de confiança (IC) binomiais exatos. Resultados Os dados de monitoramento evidenciaram forte implementação da estratégia iCCM durante o período de estudo; a disponibilidade de medicamentos, a integralidade dos registros e a classificação correta sempre excederam 80%. O tratamento da pneumonia e da diarreia por brigadistas acompanhou de perto o número de casos esperado, e os responsáveis pelas crianças sistematicamente buscaram tratamento com maior frequência junto aos brigadistas do que nos serviços de saúde. O coeficiente de mortalidade infantil diminuiu mais nas áreas com iCCM do que nas áreas sem iCCM. A redução foi estatisticamente significante, variando de 52% em 2010 (razão de taxa de mortalidade: 0,48; IC95%: 8%–75%) a 59% em 2013 (razão de taxa de mortalidade: 0,41; IC95%: 19%–79%). Conclusões Constatou-se que a iCCM é uma estratégia eficaz e viável para salvar vidas de crianças em comunidades de difícil acesso na Nicarágua. O impacto provavelmente foi mediado pelo aumento do uso de intervenções resolutivas, disponibilizadas de maneira acessível no âmbito da comunidade, através do serviço qualificado prestado pelos brigadistas.

Time volunteered on community health activities by brigadistas in Nicaragua / Tiempo de trabajo voluntario dedicado a actividades relacionadas con la salud en la comunidad de los brigadistas en Nicaragua

Objective. To report on how brigadistas (“health brigadiers”) in Nicaragua volunteer their time before the introduction of expanded responsibilities (beyond the scope of integrated community case management (iCCM)) for sick children 2–59 months old. Methods. Three complete teams of brigadistas (n = 12 brigadistas total) were selected from remote communities in the department of Matagalpa. Each respondent brigadista was interviewed privately regarding the frequency and duration (i.e., preparation, round-trip travel, and implementation time) of 13 separate activities. The correlation between their overall estimates and summed times of individual activities were measured. Results. Brigadista mean density was 1 per 156 total population (range: 120–217). Each team had one encargado/a (“manager”) with an iCCM drug box plus two to four asistentes (“assistants”). All resided in the community they served. Eight reported competing time demands during one to nine months of the year. Brigadistas volunteered an average of 75 hours per month (range: 35–131). Encargados were busier than asistentes (98 versus 68 hours per month). Three activities accounted for 70% of their time: 1) iCCM (30%: treatment (11%), follow-up (19%)); 2) receiving training (21%); and 3) promoting birth planning (19%). Brigadistas’ time was divided among preparation (12%), travel (27%), and implementation (61%). Overall estimates were highly correlated (+0.70) with summed implementation time. Conclusions. Brigadistas from these remote Nicaraguan communities were busy with different activities, levels of effort, and patterns of task-sharing. These findings, plus an ongoing job satisfaction survey and a follow-on time study after the introduction of the new interventions, will inform policy for this valuable volunteer cadre.

Objetivo. Informar sobre el trabajo voluntario de los brigadistas en Nicaragua antes de la ampliación de sus responsabilidades (más allá del manejo de casos a nivel comunitario) para que se ocuparan también de los niños enfermos de 2 a 59 meses. Métodos. Se seleccionaron tres equipos completos de brigadistas (n = 12 brigadistas en total) de comunidades remotas del departamento de Matagalpa. Cada brigadista fue entrevistado en privado sobre la frecuencia y la duración (es decir, preparación, viaje de ida y vuelta, y tiempo de ejecución) de 13 actividades diferentes. Se midió la correlación entre sus cálculos generales y la suma de los tiempos de las actividades individuales. Resultados. La densidad promedio de brigadistas era de 1 por 156 habitantes (intervalo: 120-200). Cada equipo tenía un encargado con una caja de medicamentos para el manejo de casos comunitario y de dos a cuatro asistentes. Todos residían en la comunidad que atendían. Ocho informaron exigencias de tiempo conflictivas de uno a nueve meses al año. Los brigadistas trabajaban como voluntarios un promedio de 75 horas por mes (intervalo: 35-131). Los encargados estaban más ocupados que los asistentes (98 horas frente a 68 horas por mes). Tres actividades insumían el 70% de su tiempo: 1) manejo de casos a nivel comunitario (30%: tratamiento [11%], seguimiento [19]); 2) participación en actividades de capacitación (21%), y 3) promoción de la planificación del nacimiento (19%). El tiempo de los brigadistas se repartía entre la preparación (12%), el viaje (27%) y la ejecución (61%). Se observó una elevada correlación (+0,70) entre los cálculos generales y la suma de los tiempos de ejecución. Conclusiones. Los brigadistas de estas comunidades remotas nicaragüenses realizaban distintas actividades, con niveles de esfuerzo y esquemas de división de tareas diferentes. Estos resultados, además de una encuesta en curso sobre la satisfacción en el trabajo y un estudio de seguimiento de los tiempos después de la introducción de las nuevas intervenciones, servirán para fundamentar las políticas en relación con este valioso equipo de voluntarios.

Time volunteered on community health activities by brigadistas in Nicaragua / Tiempo de trabajo voluntario dedicado a actividades relacionadas con la salud en la comunidad de los brigadistas en Nicaragua

ABSTRACT Objective To report on how brigadistas (“health brigadiers”) in Nicaragua volunteer their time before the introduction of expanded responsibilities (beyond the scope of integrated community case management (iCCM)) for sick children 2–59 months old. Methods Three complete teams of brigadistas (n = 12 brigadistas total) were selected from remote communities in the department of Matagalpa. Each respondent brigadista was interviewed privately regarding the frequency and duration (i.e., preparation, round-trip travel, and implementation time) of 13 separate activities. The correlation between their overall estimates and summed times of individual activities were measured. Results Brigadista mean density was 1 per 156 total population (range: 120–217). Each team had one encargado/a (“manager”) with an iCCM drug box plus two to four asistentes (“assistants”). All resided in the community they served. Eight reported competing time demands during one to nine months of the year. Brigadistas volunteered an average of 75 hours per month (range: 35–131). Encargados were busier than asistentes (98 versus 68 hours per month). Three activities accounted for 70% of their time: 1) iCCM (30%: treatment (11%), follow-up (19%)); 2) receiving training (21%); and 3) promoting birth planning (19%). Brigadistas’ time was divided among preparation (12%), travel (27%), and implementation (61%). Overall estimates were highly correlated (+0.70) with summed implementation time. Conclusions Brigadistas from these remote Nicaraguan communities were busy with different activities, levels of effort, and patterns of task-sharing. These findings, plus an ongoing job satisfaction survey and a follow-on time study after the introduction of the new interventions, will inform policy for this valuable volunteer cadre.

RESUMEN Objetivo Informar sobre el trabajo voluntario de los brigadistas en Nicaragua antes de la ampliación de sus responsabilidades (más allá del manejo de casos a nivel comunitario) para que se ocuparan también de los niños enfermos de 2 a 59 meses. Métodos Se seleccionaron tres equipos completos de brigadistas (n = 12 brigadistas en total) de comunidades remotas del departamento de Matagalpa. Cada brigadista fue entrevistado en privado sobre la frecuencia y la duración (es decir, preparación, viaje de ida y vuelta, y tiempo de ejecución) de 13 actividades diferentes. Se midió la correlación entre sus cálculos generales y la suma de los tiempos de las actividades individuales. Resultados La densidad promedio de brigadistas era de 1 por 156 habitantes (intervalo: 120-200). Cada equipo tenía un encargado con una caja de medicamentos para el manejo de casos comunitario y de dos a cuatro asistentes. Todos residían en la comunidad que atendían. Ocho informaron exigencias de tiempo conflictivas de uno a nueve meses al año. Los brigadistas trabajaban como voluntarios un promedio de 75 horas por mes (intervalo: 35-131). Los encargados estaban más ocupados que los asistentes (98 horas frente a 68 horas por mes). Tres actividades insumían el 70% de su tiempo: 1) manejo de casos a nivel comunitario (30%: tratamiento [11%], seguimiento [19]); 2) participación en actividades de capacitación (21%), y 3) promoción de la planificación del nacimiento (19%). El tiempo de los brigadistas se repartía entre la preparación (12%), el viaje (27%) y la ejecución (61%). Se observó una elevada correlación (+0,70) entre los cálculos generales y la suma de los tiempos de ejecución. Conclusiones Los brigadistas de estas comunidades remotas nicaragüenses realizaban distintas actividades, con niveles de esfuerzo y esquemas de división de tareas diferentes. Estos resultados, además de una encuesta en curso sobre la satisfacción en el trabajo y un estudio de seguimiento de los tiempos después de la introducción de las nuevas intervenciones, servirán para fundamentar las políticas en relación con este valioso equipo de voluntarios.

Prevalence, Serotype Distribution and Mortality Risk Associated With Group B Streptococcus Colonization of Newborns in Rural Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is a predominant cause of early-onset neonatal sepsis globally; however, the impact of this organism on the health of newborns in South Asia is debated, due in part to a paucity of community-based assessments. We estimated the prevalence and serotypes of GBS colonization of the umbilical cord stump and the association of colonization with mortality in a population-based cohort of newborns in rural Sylhet District, Bangladesh. METHODS: Umbilical cord swabs were collected from 646 newborns up to 3 times within the first week after birth (ages <24 hours, ~3 days, ~6 days) and processed to identify GBS serotypes. RESULTS: GBS was isolated from 6.3% (41/646) of newborns. Sixty-one percent of the GBS colonization occurred in neonates within 24 hours of delivery. Serotypes VII (37.1%, n = 13/36) and Ia (33.3%, n = 12/36) were the most predominant colonizing GBS isolates. Other detected serotypes were Ib (11.1%, n = 4/36), II (11.1%, n = 4/36), V (5.6%, n = 2/36) and VI (2.8%, n = 1/36). Mortality risk among newborns with GBS colonization was 6.6 (95% confidence interval: 2.1-20.4) times higher than for those without GBS. CONCLUSIONS: The overall prevalence of GBS colonization was lower than in settings, where GBS is a predominant etiology of neonatal illness. In addition, the GBS serotype distribution differed from that reported in the developed part of the world. However, further studies are needed to understand the true burden of GBS-related illness. Mortality risk was substantially increased in the presence of GBS on the umbilical stump, providing support for chlorhexidine antisepsis to the cord to prevent colonization of invasive pathogens.

Time volunteered on community health activities by brigadistas in Nicaragua.

OBJECTIVE: To report on how brigadistas ("health brigadiers") in Nicaragua volunteer their time before the introduction of expanded responsibilities (beyond the scope of integrated community case management (iCCM)) for sick children 2-59 months old. METHODS: Three complete teams of brigadistas (n = 12 brigadistas total) were selected from remote communities in the department of Matagalpa. Each respondent brigadista was interviewed privately regarding the frequency and duration (i.e., preparation, round-trip travel, and implementation time) of 13 separate activities. The correlation between their overall estimates and summed times of individual activities were measured. RESULTS: Brigadista mean density was 1 per 156 total population (range: 120-217). Each team had one encargado/a ("manager") with an iCCM drug box plus two to four asistentes ("assistants"). All resided in the community they served. Eight reported competing time demands during one to nine months of the year. Brigadistas volunteered an average of 75 hours per month (range: 35-131). Encargados were busier than asistentes (98 versus 68 hours per month). Three activities accounted for 70% of their time: 1) iCCM (30%: treatment (11%), follow-up (19%)); 2) receiving training (21%); and 3) promoting birth planning (19%). Brigadistas' time was divided among preparation (12%), travel (27%), and implementation (61%). Overall estimates were highly correlated (+0.70) with summed implementation time. CONCLUSIONS: Brigadistas from these remote Nicaraguan communities were busy with different activities, levels of effort, and patterns of task-sharing. These findings, plus an ongoing job satisfaction survey and a follow-on time study after the introduction of the new interventions, will inform policy for this valuable volunteer cadre.

Equity improvements in maternal and newborn care indicators: results from the Bardiya district of Nepal.

Community-based maternal and newborn care interventions have been shown to improve neonatal survival and other key health indicators. It is important to evaluate whether the improvement in health indicators is accompanied by a parallel increase in the equitable distribution of the intervention activities, and the uptake of healthy newborn care practices. We present an analysis of equity improvements after the implementation of a Community Based Newborn Care Package (CB-NCP) in the Bardiya district of Nepal. The package was implemented alongside other programs that were already in place within the district. We present changes in concentration indices (CIndices) as measures of changes in equity, as well as percentage changes in coverage, between baseline and endline. The CIndices were derived from wealth scores that were based on household assets, and they were compared usingt-tests. We observed statistically significant improvements in equity for facility delivery [CIndex: -0.15 (-0.24, -0.06)], knowledge of at least three newborn danger signs [-0.026(-0.06, -0.003)], breastfeeding within 1 h [-0.05(-0.11, -0.0001)], at least one antenatal visit with a skilled provider [-0.25(-0.04, -0.01)], at least four antenatal visits from any provider [-0.15(-0.19, -0.10)] and birth preparedness [-0.09(-0.12, -0.06)]. The largest increases in practices were observed for facility delivery (50%), immediate drying (34%) and delayed bathing (29%). These results and those of similar studies are evidence that community-based interventions delivered by female community health volunteers can be instrumental in improving equity in levels of facility delivery and other newborn care behaviours. We recommend that equity be evaluated in other similar settings within Nepal in order to determine if similar results are observed.

Maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and lactation to promote infant growth in Dhaka, Bangladesh (MDIG trial): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D regulates bone mineral metabolism and skeletal development. Some observational studies have suggested that prenatal vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of adverse pregnancy and/or birth outcomes; however, there is scant evidence from controlled trials, leading the World Health Organization to advise against routine vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy. Importantly, little is known about the effect of maternal vitamin D status on infant linear growth in communities in South Asia where stunting is highly prevalent and maternal-infant vitamin D status is commonly suboptimal. METHODS/DESIGN: The Maternal Vitamin D for Infant Growth study is a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging trial of maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and lactation in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The primary aims are to estimate (1) the effect of maternal prenatal oral vitamin D3 supplementation (4200 IU/wk, 16,800 IU/wk, or 28,000 IU/wk, administered as weekly doses) versus placebo on infant length at 1 year of age and (2) the effect of maternal postpartum oral vitamin D3 supplementation (28,000 IU/wk) versus placebo on length at 1 year of age among infants born to women who received vitamin D 28,000 IU/wk during pregnancy. Generally healthy pregnant women (n = 1300) in the second trimester (17-24 weeks of gestation) are randomized to one of five parallel arms: placebo 4200 IU/wk, 16,800 IU/wk, or 28,000 IU/wk in the prenatal period and placebo in the postpartum period or 28,000 IU/wk in the prenatal period and 28,000 IU/wk in the postpartum period. Household- and clinic-based follow-up of mother-infant pairs is conducted weekly by trained personnel until 26 weeks postpartum and every 3 months thereafter. The primary trial outcome measure is length for age z-score at 1 year of age. Anthropometric measurements, clinical information, and biological specimens collected at scheduled intervals will enable the assessment of a range of maternal, perinatal, and infant outcomes. DISCUSSION: The role of vitamin D in maternal and infant health remains unresolved. This trial is expected to contribute unique insights into the effects of improving maternal-infant vitamin D status in a low-income setting where stunting and adverse perinatal outcomes represent significant public health burdens. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01924013. Registered on 13 August 2013.

Newborn care practices in rural Bangladesh: Implications for the adaptation of kangaroo mother care for community-based interventions.

Bangladesh has one of the world's highest rates of low birth weight along with prevalent traditional care practices that leave newborns highly vulnerable to hypothermia, infection, and early death. We conducted formative research to explore existing newborn care practices in rural Bangladesh with an emphasis on thermal protection, and to identify potential facilitators, barriers, and recommendations for the community level delivery of kangaroo mother care (CKMC). Forty in-depth interviews and 14 focus group discussions were conducted between September and December 2012. Participants included pregnant women and mothers, husbands, maternal and paternal grandmothers, traditional birth attendants, village doctors, traditional healers, pharmacy men, religious leaders, community leaders, and formal healthcare providers. Audio recordings were transcribed and translated into English, and the textual data were analyzed using the Framework Approach. We find that harmful newborn care practices, such as delayed wrapping and early initiation of bathing, are changing as more biomedical advice from formal healthcare providers is reaching the community through word-of-mouth and television campaigns. While the goal of CKMC was relatively easily understood and accepted by many of the participants, logistical and to a lesser extent ideological barriers exist that may keep the practice from being adopted easily. Women feel a sense of inevitable responsibility for household duties despite the desire to provide the best care for their new babies. Our findings showed that participants appreciated CKMC as an appropriate treatment method for ill babies, but were less accepting of it as a protective method of caring for seemingly healthy newborns during the first few days of life. Participants highlighted the necessity of receiving help from family members and witnessing other women performing CKMC with positive outcomes if they are to adopt the behavior themselves. Focusing intervention messages on building a supportive environment for CKMC practice will be critical for the intervention's success.

Treatment of infections in young infants in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of frontline health worker diagnosis and antibiotic access.

BACKGROUND: Inadequate illness recognition and access to antibiotics contribute to high case fatality from infections in young infants (<2 months) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We aimed to address three questions regarding access to treatment for young infant infections in LMICs: (1) Can frontline health workers accurately diagnose possible bacterial infection (pBI)?; (2) How available and affordable are antibiotics?; (3) How often are antibiotics procured without a prescription? METHODS AND FINDINGS: We searched PubMed, Embase, WHO/Health Action International (HAI), databases, service provision assessments (SPAs), Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, and grey literature with no date restriction until May 2014. Data were identified from 37 published studies, 46 HAI national surveys, and eight SPAs. For study question 1, meta-analysis showed that clinical sign-based algorithms predicted bacterial infection in young infants with high sensitivity (87%, 95% CI 82%-91%) and lower specificity (62%, 95% CI 48%-75%) (six studies, n = 14,254). Frontline health workers diagnosed pBI in young infants with an average sensitivity of 82% (95% CI 76%-88%) and specificity of 69% (95% CI 54%-83%) (eight studies, n = 11,857) compared to physicians. For question 2, first-line injectable agents (ampicillin, gentamicin, and penicillin) had low variable availability in first-level health facilities in Africa and South Asia. Oral amoxicillin and cotrimoxazole were widely available at low cost in most regions. For question 3, no studies on young infants were identified, however 25% of pediatric antibiotic purchases in LMICs were obtained without a prescription (11 studies, 95% CI 18%-34%), with lower rates among infants <1 year. Study limitations included potential selection bias and lack of neonatal-specific data. CONCLUSIONS: Trained frontline health workers may screen for pBI in young infants with relatively high sensitivity and lower specificity. Availability of first-line injectable antibiotics appears low in many health facilities in Africa and Asia. Improved data and advocacy are needed to increase the availability and appropriate utilization of antibiotics for young infant infections in LMICs. REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews (CRD42013004586). Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.